Electoral Systems – Study Notes
(B.A. (General), Political Science – Exam‑Oriented – IIT‑JEE / Competitive)
1. What is an Electoral System?
- Definition – A set of rules that translates votes cast by citizens into political representation (seats in a legislature).
- Purpose –
- Capture the political will of the electorate.
- Decide which parties/individuals hold public power.
- Shape the political landscape (e.g., stability vs. representation).
2. Historical Evolution
| Period | Key Milestone | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Ancient Greece | Ephorate in Athenian democracy | Direct voting, small electorate |
| Medieval Europe | Parish and feudal assemblies | Indirect, limited suffrage |
| 19th C. | Universal male suffrage & secret ballot | Birth of modern democratic voting |
| 20th C. | Proportional Representation (PR) adopted in many European states | Responded to disproportionality of majoritarian systems |
| Late 20th C. | Mixed systems (MMP, Parallel) & STV | Attempt to combine best of both worlds |
3. Core Concepts & Terminology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Majority | > 50 % of the valid votes |
| Plurality | Highest number of votes, no majority required |
| District Magnitude | Number of seats that a single electoral district elects |
| Electoral Threshold | Minimum share of votes required to be represented (commonly 3–5 %) |
| Gerrymandering | Manipulation of district boundaries to favour a party |
| Malapportionment | Unequal voter representation across districts |
| Proportionality | Seat share ≈ vote share (strict in PR, approximate in mixed systems) |
4. Classification of Electoral Systems
| Category | Type | Example | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Direct vs Indirect | Direct | Lok Sabha (India) | Voters choose representatives directly |
| Indirect | Rajya Sabha (India) | Representatives elected by state legislatures | |
| Single‑Member vs Multi‑Member | Single‑Member | First‑Past‑The‑Post (FPTP) | One candidate per district |
| Multi‑Member | Party‑List PR | Multiple seats per district | |
| Majoritarian vs Proportional | Majoritarian | FPTP, Alternative Vote | Winner takes all |
| Proportional | Party‑List PR, Single Transferable Vote (STV) | Seats allocated proportionally | |
| Mixed Systems | Mixed‑Member Proportional (MMP) | Germany, New Zealand | Combines FPTP constituency seats with list seats |
| Parallel (Mixed) | Japan (pre‑2013), India (Lok Sabha) | Separate calculations for constituency & list seats |
5. Detailed Look at Major Systems
5.1 First‑Past‑The‑Post (FPTP)
- Rule: Candidate with highest votes wins.
- Seat‑Share: Can be highly disproportional (e.g., 40 % votes → 70 % seats).
- Advantages: Simplicity, strong link between constituents & MP, tends to produce single‑party governments.
- Disadvantages: Wasted votes, minority representation, encourages tactical voting.
5.2 Alternative Vote (AV) / Instant‑Runoff Voting (IRV)
- Rule: Voters rank candidates. If no candidate >50 % first‑choice votes, eliminate lowest and redistribute based on next preference. Repeat until a candidate >50