Modern India
Study Notes for Judicial Services (PCS‑J) – General Awareness & Current Affairs
1. Simple Explanation
Modern India refers to the period from the early 20th century (when India began asserting its independence) up to the present day. It is marked by:
- Political transformation from a British colony to a sovereign republic (1947–1950).
- Constitutional consolidation – the Constitution of India (1950) and its successive amendments.
- Economic evolution – from a planned economy to liberalised markets post‑1991.
- Social progress – in education, health, gender equality, and secularism.
- Judicial development – landmark Supreme Court cases shaping rights and governance.
- International engagement – strategic alliances, global trade, and soft‑power diplomacy.
2. Key Points
| Category | Highlights (chronologically) |
|---|---|
| Political Milestones | • 1930–1947: Civil Disobedience & Quit India movements. • 1947: Independence & Partition. • 1950: Constitution adopted; India becomes a republic. • 1962–1975: Liberalisation of political parties (7th Amendment). • 1975–1977: Emergency (1975‑77). • 1980s: Rise of coalition politics (1984–1989). • 1991–2004: National Democratic Alliance (NDA) & United Front governments. • 2004–2014: UPA (United Progressive Alliance). • 2014–present: BJP-led NDA. |
| Constitutional & Legal Reforms | • 1950: Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles, and Preamble. • 1978: 42nd Amendment (strengthened Parliament). • 1992: 42nd Amendment—judicial review of constitutional amendments. • 1995: 42nd Amendment—amended Article 368 (constitutional amendment procedure). • 2005: 42nd Amendment—judicial review of amendments to the Constitution. |
| Economic Reforms | • 1947–1960s: Mixed economy, Five‑Year Plans. • 1974: 1974 Industrial Policy—state control. • 1991: Liberalisation, Privatization, Globalisation (LPG) package. • 2001: GST (Goods & Services Tax) (effective 2017). • 2020‑21: COVID‑19 stimulus & digital economy push. |
| Social & Cultural Developments | • 1950s‑70s: Literacy campaigns, National Education Policy (1968). • 1970s: Green Revolution, Family Planning Programme. • 1990s: Women’s Reservation in Parliament (73rd & 74th Amendments). • 2000s: Right to Information Act (2005), National Rural Health Mission. |
| Judicial Milestones | • 1950–1970s: Establishment of High Courts, Supreme Court’s advisory role. • 1975: Kesavananda Bharati case – Basic structure doctrine. • 1997: S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India – federalism & state elections. • 2007: Prabhakar Singh vs. Union of India – Election Commission’s powers. • 2015: V. P. Joshi vs. Union – IMC (Interim Measures) in human rights. |
| International Relations | • 1947–1970s: Non‑Alignment Movement (NAM). • 1990s: Bilateral trade agreements (US, EU, ASEAN). • 2000s: BRICS, G20 participation. • 2010s: “Act East” policy, US‑India Civil Nuclear Deal (2008). • 2020s: Strategic partnership with Russia, China‑India border negotiations. |
3. Worked Example
Case Study: 1991 Economic Liberalisation (LPG) Package
Objective: Transition India from a closed, state‑controlled economy to an open, market‑driven one.
| Step | Detail | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Context | 1991 fiscal crisis (balance‑of‑payments deficit, liquidity crunch). | Needed external assistance & policy overhaul. |
| 2. Key Reforms | a. Trade liberalisation: 85% of goods tariff‑reduced to < 10%. b. Foreign direct investment (FDI): 100% ownership allowed in most sectors. c. Corporate law: Insolvency and bankruptcy code introduced. d. Banking reforms: Liberalised credit, introduced market‑based rates. |
Encouraged foreign capital inflow and competition. |
| 3. Implementation Bodies | Ministry of Finance, RBI, Ministry of Commerce & Industry; 12 “LPG Task Force” committees. | Ensured coordination across ministries. |
| 4. Outcomes (1991‑2000) | • GDP growth averaged 6–7%. • Poverty rate declined from ~34% to 27%. • Export share rose from ~12% to 21%. • IT & service sectors became major GDP contributors. |
Marked shift to “India as a service hub”. |
| 5. Criticisms | • Rising inequality (Gini coefficient). • Displacement of small farmers & industries. |
Led to subsequent social safety nets & subsidies. |
| 6. Legacy | Established framework for continued reforms (GST, Digital India). | Foundations of India’s “Emerging Market” status. |